A Shepherd to the Sheep: The Pastoral Theology of Ignatius to Polycarp

Andy Stanley caused a stir sixteen years ago when he advised everyone to kill the term shepherd. He was burdened over the fact that much incompetence had snuck into the church through an overly-sentimental view of pastoral ministry—a view that often fails to deal with the hard business realities of managing a church. Doing away with the term shepherd would help people realize that the pastor is the chief executive in an organization that needs to be run well.

I can happily say that after 16 years, people kept using the term despite his best efforts. It failed in part because the terms pastor and shepherd are identical, a fact that Pastor Stanley seemed to miss, and he failed to provide a better term as a replacement. Shepherd, he claimed, was a term Jesus used because it was available. If there had been chief executive officers hanging around Palestine, Jesus would have pointed to them to make his point. Pastor Stanley claimed that there is nothing inherently spiritual in the idea of a shepherd for the leadership over the flock of God. Even though it is a biblical term, it was contextual, and in a different context, it should be discarded. He goes so far as to claim that “by the time of the Book of Acts, the shepherd model is gone. It's about establishing elders and deacons and their qualifications.”[1] That is a claim worth investigating.

One helpful result among the many baleful over Stanley’s interview transcript is that pastors were more aware of the need for excellence in handling the management of their churches. After all, churches have budgets, too, and they could learn a few things from corporations. This mixed reception of horror and delight to Stanley was a testament to the Bill Hybels era that reigned over the many air terminal newsstands of the country.

Despite the warm reception that brand-name, big-money Christianity has had, the question that popular literature has failed to address is the one that still niggles the mind of one sitting in the back pew of the church—it is whether the pastor really ought to be a CEO wearing the skin of a shepherd. Stanley unearthed a riddle that troubles many consciences to this day: is the pastor a professional or is he a prophet?

The method for this paper will be to look at Scripture’s three-fold pattern of pastoral ministry through the rubric of shepherds and see how this pattern plays out in the letters of two early Church figures—Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, and Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. This enduring vision for pastoral ministry is still in force today, even though the occupation of a shepherd is largely antiquated in modern, Western society. Pastors are not free to reinvent what they believe ought to be the role of an under-shepherd in a church. The model of pastoral ministry that forms itself after the image of a CEO does not fit into the biblical metrics of success because it departs from the model given by Jesus, the Great Shepherd of the sheep and Senior Pastor of the Church.

The three farmyard duties chosen to demonstrate this pattern in this paper are feed the sheep, shoot the wolves, and pursue the wayward. These biblical responsibilities will be briefly shown to be in Scripture, and then they will be shown to be in the seven letters of Ignatius, and subsequently shown to be concerns passed on to Polycarp through his letter to the Philippians.

Feed the Sheep

The smoke from the charcoal fire at Peter’s re-commissioning service at the shore of Tiberias would have brought back the painful reminder of how Peter denied Jesus three times around a similar fire. Jesus’ line of questioning grieved the leader of the Apostles, and the commands of Jesus given to Peter on the rocky beach for the care of the flock were to define the ministry of Peter. The command to “Feed my sheep” (John 21:17) was neither an incidental exhortation nor a grasping after a catchy analogy to describe tender business management of an organization. It was a call to something ancient that the fathers of old knew by experience.

Close to death, Jacob affirmed that God had been the shepherd of his life (Genesis 48:15); the people of God are often described as the flock of God in the care of the Great Shepherd that carried them to the safety of the Promise-Land pastures and fed them good food (Numbers 27:17, 2 Samuel 5:2, Psalm 28:9); and the Hebrew Scriptures describe the leaders of God’s people as shepherds over the flock of God (Ezekiel 34:2, 1 Kings 22:17, Zechariah 10:2). The New Testament continues the pattern of describing the leaders of God’s people as shepherds and the people as the flock of God. Peter commands elders to “shepherd the flock of God that is among” them (1 Peter 5:2). Paul knew that after he left Ephesus, many false teachers would deceive the people like hungry wolves that stalk a group of sheep (Acts 20:29).

The charge of Jesus to the chief Apostle to feed the sheep is a charge that carries down to all leaders of all churches. If they are to feed the flock, then they must also know what fodder the sheep need to eat. The food of the flock is faithful theology. Sound doctrine is life-giving, soul-enriching teaching that brings health to people and is faithful to the pattern of sound words handed down from the Apostles to the next generation of teachers.

Paul solemnly charged his protégée Timothy to preach the Word (2 Timothy 4:1-3). This is a command given in the sight God himself, an oath bathed in the radiance of the coming kingdom of Christ. It is not possible to give a weightier command, and therefore it should not be seen as an incidental piece of advice among the many responsibilities of the young pastor. “Preach the Word” is the hub of the wheel out of which all other responsibilities radiate. This task is so important because there will come a time when people will not endure life-giving teaching, but will turn away from the truth. A shepherd's task is to feed the sheep good theology—to promote the good and put away the bad.

In his seven letters, Ignatius followed this pattern from the Apostles and promoted good theology for the safety of souls. As bishop of Antioch in Syria, it was his job to preach and teach the people of God in his care.[2] His fervency in Christian doctrine earned him a trip to the Coliseum in Rome.[3] Tradition says that he contradicted the Emperor Trajan to the face and refused to worship the other gods.[4] While being escorted by ten Roman guards, Ignatius wrote six letters to churches and one letter to the bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp.[5]

Ignatius placed a high concern for doctrine in all seven letters. Three of the letters contain patterns of words that resemble early creeds. He confessed that the great Physician is possessed “both of flesh and spirit; both made and not made; God existing in flesh; true life in death; both of Mary and of God; first possible and then impossible, even Jesus Christ our Lord” (IgnEph 7:2).

To the Trallians, he affirmed that Jesus was descended from David, and was also of Mary; who was truly born, and did eat and drink. He was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate; He was truly crucified, and truly died, in the sight of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth” (IgnTral 9:1).

To Polycarp’s church in Smyrna, Ignatius affirmed that Jesus was truly of the seed of David according to the flesh, and the “Son of God according to the will and power of God; that He was truly born of a virgin, was baptized by John, in order that all righteousness might be fulfilled by Him” (IgnSmyr 1:1).

Ignatius wrote a letter to the Magnesians and prayed that they might be fully convinced of Jesus’ birth, sufferings, and resurrection that took place during the time of Pontius Pilate, and he affirms that “these things were truly and most assuredly done by Jesus Christ, our hope, from which may none of you ever be turned aside” (IgnMag 11:1).

On his way to death, Ignatius wrote a personal letter to one man—Polycarp—and they most likely knew each other for many years. According to tradition, Ignatius and Polycarp were disciples of the Apostles,[6] and it said in another source that the two were personal disciples of the Apostle John.[7] It is significant to compare the works of these two men because there is an affinity between the men, and one can see in Polycarp’s letter a “reflection of the pastoral duties stressed in Ignatius’s letter to Polycarp.”[8]

Ignatius wrote to Polycarp and affirmed truths about “The Eternal, the Invisible, who for our sake became visible; the Intangible, the Unsuffering, who for our sake suffered, who for our sake endured in every way” (IgnPoly 3:2). One can see that there was an early concern for right theology in the first generation after the Apostles. John’s Revelation was probably written in AD 96, and the letters of Ignatius were written around AD 110.[9] The incarnation of the second Person of the Trinity and His death and resurrection were premium truths that had to be defended and passed along to the next generation—even as Ignatius was being led away to death.

Polycarp too cared about theology, and the pastoral burden of theology was passed on to the next generation. [10] The only surviving work of Polycarp is his letter to the Philippians, written no later than AD 120.[11] He affirmed that Jesus was raised from the dead by the Father and was given glory and a throne. “To Him all things in heaven and on earth are subject. Him every spirit serves. He comes as the Judge of the living and the dead” (PolyPhil 2:1). He calls anyone who does not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is the antichrist (7:1). Polycarp affirms that Jesus “bore our sins in His own body on the tree,” and was one “who did no sin, neither was guile found in His mouth, but endured all things for us, that we might live in Him” (8:1).

The office of a shepherd cannot be a non-theological office, since it is shepherd-teachers that are given to the Church (Ephesians 4:11). The leadership of a church cannot be anything but spiritual, since it handles spiritual things. The good food of the church for the nourishing of souls is faithful theology—the faith once-for-all delivered to the saints.

Shoot the Wolves

The other side of the coin to promoting good theology is protecting the flock from false teachers. The task of the shepherd must include both teaching right doctrine as well as refuting bad doctrine. Jesus warned the Church to beware of false prophets who come looking like innocent sheep, “but inwardly are ravenous wolves” (Matthew 7:15). Paul’s final exhortation to the Ephesian elders is that they be on guard against predatory wolves that will speak twisted things, trying to confuse the church (Acts 20:29-31). The Apostle John explained to the Church that there are certain doctrinal denials that tip one off as to whether they may be dealing with a false teacher. He said that anyone who denies that Jesus came from God has the spirit of antichrist, and “every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God” (1 John 4:2).

Ignatius continued the same apostolic concern and explicitly warned about false teachers. In all seven letters, with the exception of his letter to the Romans, he appeals to the churches to avoid being ensnared by the evil tricks of false teachers. To the Trallians he warned that they should “flee the wicked offshoots that bear deadly fruit, not of the Father’s planting” (IgnTral 11:1). To the Philippians he urged them to follow their shepherd the bishop for guidance, for “many seemingly trustworthy wolves attempt to take captive the runners in God’s race” (IgnPhil 2:1-2). Continuing the theme that false teachers are evil beasts, Ignatius said that they are “mad dogs that bite by stealth” (IgnEph 7:1) and “wild beasts in human form” (IgnSmyr 4:2).

On his way to death, Ignatius wrote to a fellow pastor and unburdened his heart about the concern he felt about false teaching. He tells Polycarp that these false teachers must not baffle him, though they appear to be trustworthy. The younger Polycarp—no older than 41 at this time[12]—must “stand firm, like an anvil being struck with a hammer.” False teachers, Ignatius said will assault the church, and Polycarp must be the anvil that receives their blows and does not buckle. The life-long battle Polycarp will face with the wolves is described as an athletic event: “It is the mark of a great athlete to be bruised, yet still conquer” (IgnPoly 3:1).  

The same pastoral concern to warn the churches against false teaching is passed down from Ignatius to Polycarp.[13] The bishop of Smyrna wrote to the Philippians that “whosoever does not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh, is antichrist,” and “whosoever does not confess the testimony of the cross, is of the devil,” and “whosoever perverts the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts, and says that there is neither a resurrection nor a judgment, he is the first-born of Satan” (PolyPhil 7:1).

Polycarp encouraged the church to forsake the false teaching of the many, which he considered vanity and exhorted the Philippians to “return to the word which has been handed down to us from the beginning” (PolyPhil 7:2).[14] Polycarp showed that faithful theology, which is the faith once-for-all delivered to the saints, and protecting against false teachers are the roles of a shepherd.

Pursue the Wayward

Most unlike a CEO, the shepherd is to give individual attention to the flock and care for their souls. If giving out good doctrine and putting down bad doctrine were the sole duties of a shepherd, then the pastor of a church would be a heartless intellectual. Good management cannot be divorced from a tender ethic. The great condemnation of God against the rulers of Israel was that “you do not feed the sheep.” 

The weak you have not strengthened, the sick you have not healed, the injured you have not bound up, the strayed you have not brought back, the lost you have not sought, and with force and harshness you have ruled them (Ezekiel 34:3-4).

More is at stake in church leadership than simply having clear goals and balancing the budget. Israel was exiled from the land in part because they had been cruel to the most vulnerable among them, forgetting that they were at one time foreigners in a strange land in need of a protector. Jesus described himself as the good shepherd who knows all of his sheep (John 10:14-15), and he exemplifies the shepherd as one who leaves behind ninety-nine in safety to pursue one who is in danger (Matthew 18:12-13). Paul exhorted elders to give “careful attention” to the flock entrusted to them (Acts 20:28).

Ignatius said that one sign a person is a false teacher is that they have no concern for widows (IgnSmyr 6:2). He described a bishop of one congregation as a man whose “gentleness is his power” (IgnTral 3:2). His instructions to Polycarp are full of tenderness, reminding the younger bishop that he is made of both physical and spiritual material and therefore should be patient with those who are weak and treat people gently (IgnPoly 2:2).[15] Ignatius encouraged him to seek out each individual in his church by name (IgnPoly 4:2). Polycarp was to model his ministry after the care the Lord shows to his people, and Ignatius instructs him to “not let widows be neglected; after the Lord, you be their guardian” (4:1).

Bishop Polycarp continued this apostolic-like concern and described presbyters as those who “must be compassionate, merciful to all, turning back those who have gone astray, visiting all the sick, not neglecting a widow, orphan, or poor person” (PolyPhil 6:1). The motivation for mercy lies in the fact that “we are all in debt with respect to sin.” No Christian should withhold forgiveness or compassion to another person, because Christians should be the first to confess that they have been great sinners forgiven of a great debt.

Conclusion

Ignatius was doing more than playing on an extended metaphor by using the analogy of a shepherd. He was not merely describing his burden for church leaders to have a heightened concern against false teachers by invoking pastoral imagery. He showed concern for the life of the young and vulnerable in the faith against predatory men because being a pastor means being a shepherd over the flock of God. It is the job of a shepherd to equip the flock with faithful theology as well as chase away those who seek to take advantage of the vulnerable by plausible arguments. Ignatius knew that if churches fell prey to bad theology, then they would not only be misguided but they would be robbed of eternal life (cf. IgnEph 17:1).

What a person says near death is usually a good indication of their heart’s deepest burdens, and Ignatius was a man running out of time with limited moments to write his final words to beloved churches before he was killed. The care of the flock of God is utmost in his mind, both for the preservation of faithful theology and the protection against false teachers. He passed on his burden to Polycarp, and these apostolic-like burdens ought to be carried forward to the present. These ancient letters are clear evidence that the shepherd model was still in effect in the churches of Christ in the first generation after the Apostles, despite how unfamiliar and remote the life of a sheep handler is to modern pastors in Georgia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Donaldson, James. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Ed. Alexander Roberts. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1950.

Grant, Robert M., ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 1. New York: Thomas Nelson, 1964.

Hartog, Paul, ed. Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP, 2013.

Holmes, Michale W., trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006.

Jefford, Clayton N. Reading the Apostolic Fathers. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2012.

Kleist, J. A. The Didache. Westminster: Newman, 1948.

Lightfoot, J. B., ed. The Apostolic Fathers: Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Part 2. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1981.

Lightfoot, J. B., ed. The Apostolic Fathers: Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Part 2. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1981.

Philo, and Agathopodus. “The Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius” Ante-Nicene Fathers. Trans. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Ed. A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature, 1885.

Pratscher, Wilhelm, ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Waco, TX: Baylor UP, 2010. 

Stanley, Andy. "Get-It-Done Leadership." Christianity Today. Leadership Journal, 28 May 2007.

[1] Stanley, Andy. "Get-It-Done Leadership." Christianity Today. Leadership Journal, 28 May 2007.

[2] Eusebius Pamphilius, Church History 3.36.1

[3] Jefford, Clayton N. Reading the Apostolic Fathers. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2012, 48

[4] Philo, and Agathopodus. “The Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius” Ante-Nicene Fathers. Trans. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Ed. A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature, 1885, 129.

[5] Lightfoot, J. B., ed. The Apostolic Fathers: Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Part 2. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1981, 305.

[6] Eusebius Pamphilius, Church History 3.36.1

[7] Donaldson, James. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Ed. Alexander Roberts. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1950, 124.

[8] Kleist, J. A. The Didache. Westminster: Newman, 1948, 337.

[9] Holmes, Michale W., trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006, 90.

[10] Jefford, Clayton N. Reading the Apostolic Fathers. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2012, 110.

[11] Hartog, Paul, ed. Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP, 2013, 44.

[12] Holmes, Apostolic Fathers, 141.

[13] Lightfoot, J. B., ed. The Apostolic Fathers: Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Part 2. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1981, 231.

[14] Grant, Robert M., ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 1. New York: Thomas Nelson, 1964, 88.

[15] Pratscher, Wilhelm, ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Waco, TX: Baylor UP, 2010, 98.